Kinship Words and What They Mean

Finding the right words to describe family connections

When I sit down to write about family history, I often get tongue-tied. I know who belongs where, but finding the right words to explain it can be tricky. Am I talking about the family I was born into, the family I married into, or the wider web of cousins and kin? Different disciplines — sociology, anthropology, genealogy — have developed terms that help to distinguish these layers of relationship. Learning and using them makes it much easier to speak clearly about where people fit.

Here are some of the most useful ones:

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1. Natal Family (or Family of Origin / Birth Family)

We all start somewhere. The natal family is the family you are born into — parents, siblings, and sometimes grandparents or others under the same roof. Its role is to shape you: teaching values, language, identity, and giving you your first place in the world.

Example: The household you grew up in with your parents and brothers or sisters.

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2. Conjugal Family (or Family of Procreation / Married Family)

At some point, many of us step out from our natal family and form a new unit. The conjugal family arises through marriage or long-term partnership, centred on the bond between spouses and, often, children.

But conjugal families are not permanent in the same way as blood ties. If a partnership ends, the conjugal unit dissolves — yet the children remain part of both parents’ lives through consanguineal ties. In other words, while marriages may end, parent–child bonds continue.

Example: When you marry and set up a household with your spouse, you form your conjugal family.

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3. Consanguineal Family (Blood Relatives)

If conjugal families are about bonds created through marriage, consanguineal families are about bonds of blood. This category stretches beyond your parents and siblings to include grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins. In many cultures, the obligations and loyalties owed to this wider kin group are just as binding, sometimes more so, than those of the conjugal household.

For anyone researching ancestry through DNA, this is the family you are tracing: the threads of connection that link you to living relatives and long-gone ancestors alike.

Lineal Consanguinity (Direct Ancestral Line)

Within the broader consanguineal family, your lineal ancestors form a direct chain stretching back through time. Lineal specifically means "in a direct line," either ascending (going up to ancestors) or descending (going down to descendants). Lineal relatives are your direct line relatives, like parents, grandparents, children, and grandchildren, while collateral relatives are the side branches: siblings, aunts, uncles, and cousins.

In genealogy, we distinguish between lineal ascendants (your direct ancestors going up through parents, grandparents, great-grandparents) and lineal descendants (your direct descendants going down through children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren). The term comes from the idea of a straight "line" going directly up or down the family tree, as opposed to branching out to the sides.

This is the "family tree trunk" that genealogists and DNA researchers often focus on when tracing ancestry — the precise term for blood relatives who are in your direct ancestral line, rather than the broader network of all blood relatives.

Example: Your great-great-grandmother is part of your lineal consanguinity, while her sister would be a collateral relative.

4. Affinal Family (Relatives by Marriage)

Not all important ties are biological. Affinal relatives are those gained through marriage: your in-laws, step-relations, and other relatives gained through marriage. These relationships don’t show up in a DNA test, but they often play a central role in family history. Alliances created through marriage can shape property rights, social standing, and even political power.

Example: Your sister’s husband is your brother-in-law — an affinal relative.

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Now that we've defined these different types of family relationships, here's how they all connect in a typical kinship structure:

We are born into our natal family and move beyond it when we make our conjugal family. Our natal family connects us to our ancestral consanguineal relatives (both our direct ancestral line and collateral relatives like aunts and cousins). In contrast, our conjugal family both creates new consanguineal ties (our descendants) and gives us new affinal relatives (in-laws) tied not by blood but by marriage law.

Basic Kinship Structure

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Why These Distinctions Matter in Ancestry Work

When tracing family history, it helps to know which set of relationships you are really looking at.

• DNA / genetic genealogy can only reveal your consanguineal relatives.

• Historical and cultural genealogy requires us to pay attention to affinal ties as well, because they often determined how families allied, prospered, or endured.

In fact, many societies have placed equal, or even greater, emphasis on affinal connections. In South Asia, for instance, marriage rules systematically tied whole lineages together. In Europe, royal dynasties carefully managed marriage alliances to secure land and power. Ordinary families, too, used marriage to strengthen bonds between households, even if the stakes were less grand than kingdoms.

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Closing Thought

By putting names to these different family types — natal, conjugal, consanguineal, affinal — we gain a clearer vocabulary for talking about the many ways people belong to one another. For those of us exploring ancestry, it means we can better explain not just who is related to us, but also how those relationships are structured, remembered, and passed down.

What killed George Jennings in 1844?

 George Jennings, a Sub-Conductor in the East India Company’s Ordnance Department, died in the region then known as Scinde—modern-day Sindh, Pakistan—during a deadly summer for British forces stationed along the Indus. While his military record notes only the date of death, I’ve pieced together likely causes from historical sources. This post reconstructs what may have happened. (For background on George Jennings’s life and family, see his WikiTree profile.)

George Jennings’s military record states that he died on 15 September 1844, but does not provide details regarding the circumstances or location of his death.[i] However, his name appears in the List of Casualties for 1844 with the following entry:

"Sub-Conductor G. Jennings of the Ordnance Department deceased 15 September 1844 in Scinde."[ii]

In 1845 The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Miscellany reported:

“The 78th and 86th Regiments arrived from England in August 1842. … In the third quarter of 1844, the regiment, divided betwixt Sukkiir and Hydrabad, on the Indus, lost 231 men, - 141 from remittent fever, the remainder from bowel complaints chiefly.  …..”[iii]

‘Scinde’ refers to the historical region now known as  , in present-day Pakistan. Jennings’s rank, Sub-Conductor, was used for senior non-commissioned officers in the Ordnance Department, responsible for overseeing supplies and logistics. The cause of death is not specified, and further research may be required to uncover additional details regarding the circumstances.

Sukkur (spelled 'Sukkiir' in an 1845 journal) and Hyderabad are both cities within the Sindh region. As a Sub-Conductor in the Ordnance Department, George Jennings would likely have been stationed at one of these locations, or moved between them as part of his duties. Ordnance Department personnel were integral to military operations and were usually stationed alongside combat units. As a result, Jennings would have shared the same water sources, food supplies, and unsanitary conditions as the soldiers, exposing him to diseases common in such environments.

His death falls squarely within the third quarter of 1844 (July-September) when the journal reports the regiment lost 231 men. The journal attributes the deaths primarily to "remittent fever" (likely malaria or typhoid) and "bowel complaints" (dysentery and other intestinal diseases) - exactly the kinds of epidemic diseases that would affect both military personnel and civilian support staff in the same garrison. This makes it highly probable that George was directly affected by the same epidemic that killed members of the 78th Regiment during that same quarter, as he was operating in exactly the same geographic area during the same time.

The scale of mortality described - 231 deaths in just three months from a single regiment - indicates a severe epidemic that would have affected the entire military establishment in that area, not just the regiment itself. Given the limited medical knowledge and sanitation of the 1840s, such outbreaks routinely killed support personnel alongside soldiers.

While we cannot be absolutely certain without more specific records, the overwhelming geographic, temporal, and circumstantial evidence strongly suggests George Jennings was a victim of the same disease outbreak that devastated the 78th Regiment in Scinde during that deadly summer of 1844.

Figure 1 Photographer Tim Willasey-Wilsey, Memorial to the 78th Highland Regiment and families, accessed 27 July 2025.

While George Jennings died during the same deadly epidemic that struck the 78th Highland Regiment, and likely shared the same conditions, he is not included on the regiment’s memorial that stands in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, which commemorates only its own personnel and families, which reads as follows:

“To the memory of two officers, twenty one serjeants, twenty seven corporals, nine drummers, four hundred and thirty nine privates, forty seven women, and one hundred and twenty four children, of the Seventy Eighth Highland Regiment, in all amounting to six hundred and sixty nine, who died on the banks of the River Indus in Sinde, between the sixth day of September one thousand eight hundred and forty four and the fourth day of March one thousand eight hundred and forty five."[iv]

Given the scale of loss and the circumstances of his death, it is likely that George was buried in an unmarked grave, possibly near his place of service in Scinde. His final resting place remains unknown, though his wife Catherine was buried in Bombay just months later.

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[i] George Jennings, Military Record, attestation: 25 November 1822, Middlesex. Registers of Bombay Army European Soldiers, 1793–1839, A–K, India Office Records, L/MIL/12/109. Accessed via FIBIS website https://www.fibis.org/. “Registers of Bombay Army European Soldiers” database (no images), (accessed 16 April 2020) [Explanation: confirms George’s death date as 15 September 1844]

[ii] “Casualties Announced from 1st January to 31st December 1844” The Indian Calendar (1845) p. 208  (Accessed Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.11566 [image 811 of 924] on 17 January 2025 [Explanation: confirms George’s death date as 15 September 1844]

[iii] Tim Willasey-Wilsey, "A melancholy monument to the ravages of disease in British India," The Victorian Web, 2014, accessed 27 July 2025, https://victorianweb.org/history/empire/india/80.html, citing Asiatic Journal and Monthly Miscellany November 1844 to April 1845 Vol 4 Third Series, published London William H Allen 1845 p.561 [Explanation: provides contemporary context and 19th-century source material documenting conditions around George at the time of his death]

[iv] Tim Willasey-Wilsey, " Photograph Memorial to the 78th Highland Regiment and families," The Victorian Web, 2014, accessed 27 July 2025, https://victorianweb.org/history/empire/india/10.html

Inheriting Faith in a Fragmented Religious Landscape (Part 5)

 Legacy of Faith - Conclusions and Reflections

Having explored John Williamson's spiritual inheritance through his parents' diverse religious backgrounds in Parts 1-2, his marriage choices in Part 3, and the influential role of women in Part 4, our final installment examines what we can and cannot know about his personal faith and the broader implications of his story.

Assumptions, Evidence, and Future Research

John Williamson with his wife Margaret circa 1950

In tracing John Williamson's spiritual outlook, I have assumed that his early exposure to structured religion and spiritualist influences shaped his adult beliefs. However, direct evidence of John's personal faith is limited. While military and marriage records list him as affiliated with the Church of Christ, it is unclear whether this reflects active belief or merely social convention. Some living relatives recall no strong religious convictions in John, and his children's church involvement may have stemmed more from their mother's influence.

Given these ambiguities, further research is needed. Interviews with surviving family members and a search for church membership records may clarify John's true stance. I also acknowledge the possibility—raised by my beta reader—that John may have abandoned religious faith altogether, reflecting a broader pattern of secularisation in families exposed to diverse belief systems.

Between Worlds: 

John as a Transitional Figure

John Williamson's life (1892-1957) spanned a period of profound religious change in Australia. Born into a world where religious affiliation was nearly universal, he died at the beginning of what would become a steady decline in formal religious participation. His negotiation between traditions—from his father's structured Christianity to his mother's spiritualist heritage, culminating in his Methodist marriage—makes him a fascinating transitional figure.

Whether John maintained personal religious convictions or merely observed social conventions, his flexibility across denominational lines foreshadowed the more fluid approach to spirituality that would become increasingly common in later generations. In this sense, John's religious journey may be most valuable not as an individual case study but as a window into how faith adapts at the hinge points of cultural change.

What We Learn from Fragmented Faith

What lessons can we draw from John's spiritual inheritance for our contemporary religious landscape? Several insights emerge:

1. Religious identity is rarely inherited intact. Even in eras of stronger religious affiliation, individuals like John navigated between traditions, adapting faith to circumstance.

2. Women's influence on religious formation is often invisible in formal records. As we saw in Part 4, the spiritual work of Caroline, Isabella, and Margaret shaped John's religious environment in ways that conventional histories might miss.

3. Geographic displacement creates religious opportunity and challenge. The Williamson family's move from Victoria to Western Australia forced a renegotiation of religious identity that mirrors many contemporary experiences of migration and displacement.

4. Religious pragmatism has deep historical roots. John's apparent comfort with interdenominational marriage and flexible affiliation challenges simplistic narratives about a more religiously dogmatic past.

Personal Reflection: 

Why This Matters

This exploration began as genealogical curiosity but evolved into something more profound—a meditation on how we all navigate inherited belief systems. My great-grandfather's spiritual journey, with its pragmatic adaptations and denominational border-crossings, feels remarkably contemporary despite the century that separates us.

In an age where many of us assemble spiritual identities from diverse sources and traditions, John's story reminds us that such religious bricolage is not entirely new. Perhaps what has changed is not the human tendency to adapt faith to circumstance, but merely our willingness to acknowledge doing so.

This uncertainty about John's inner spiritual life does not diminish the value of examining his spiritual inheritance; rather, it highlights the complexity of faith transmission and adaptation across generations—a complexity that continues to shape our religious landscape today.

This concludes the five-part series originally serialised on Blogger. A complete, revised version will soon be published on Substack.

Inheriting Faith in a Fragmented Religious Landscape (Part 4)

The Quiet Faith of Women

Building on Part 3's exploration of John's marriage within the Methodist tradition, Part 4 examines the often overlooked but profound influence of women on his spiritual formation.

If John was shaped by a spiritual environment, much of that shaping came through the women around him. Caroline Munro, his mother, brought with her a legacy that was deeply influenced by the Victorian-era Spiritualist movement:

• Spiritualist Lineage: Her father supported Spiritualist gatherings, her mother co-founded a local society for spiritual research, and her sister Blanche became a public figure in Spiritualist circles.^{i ii iii iv}

• Her mother, Isabella Munro (née Jennings), was also involved in the Spiritualist Movement.^v

Women's Religious Agency in Late Victorian Australia

Mrs Blanche Pedley nee Munro, sister of Caroline Williamson nee Munro

This spiritual heritage operated alongside—sometimes beneath—the more formal religious commitments of the family. These women did not necessarily hold institutional power, but they shaped domestic belief and spiritual conversation in ways that traditional historical records often fail to capture.

Spiritualism itself was often a refuge for women seeking agency in a male-dominated religious world. It provided a platform for leadership, teaching, and metaphysical exploration that orthodox churches often denied them. In the séance rooms and spiritual circles of Melbourne, women like Isabella Munro and her daughter Blanche found spaces where their voices carried authority and their spiritual insights were valued.

From Mother to Son: 

Tracing Maternal Spiritual Influence

How did Caroline's Spiritualist heritage manifest in John's life? While we have no direct record of John participating in Spiritualist activities, the movement's emphasis on personal spiritual experience and direct communication with the divine likely informed the religious atmosphere of his childhood home.

This maternal influence may help explain John's later comfort with religious flexibility—moving between Church of Christ and Methodist traditions—as well as his apparent lack of denominational rigidity. The Spiritualist emphasis on personal spiritual authority rather than institutional doctrine parallels John's own approach to religious affiliation.

Margaret Jacka: 

Continuing the Female Spiritual Lineage

John's wife Margaret brought her own religious heritage to their union. Raised in the Methodist tradition, she represented yet another female influence on John's spiritual journey. Her Methodist background, with its emphasis on personal holiness and practical Christianity, complemented the pragmatic spirituality that John inherited from his mother's side.

The marriage of John and Margaret thus united not just two individuals but two distinct religious lineages—one characterised by spiritual exploration and metaphysical questioning, the other by disciplined Methodist practice. Their union mirrors the larger pattern we've observed throughout this series: faith as an ongoing negotiation between inherited traditions and personal choice.

Conclusion: 

The Invisible Spiritual Work of Women

This tension between structured religion and metaphysical openness would become the backdrop of John's spiritual inheritance. Through examining the religious lives of Caroline Munro, Isabella Jennings, Blanche Munro, and Margaret Jacka, we gain insight into how women's religious practices—often overlooked in formal church histories—shaped the spiritual landscape of families like the Williamsons.

In the final episode, we’ll reflect on what we can and can’t know about John’s personal convictions—and what this tells us about the nature of spiritual inheritance.

Footnotes

i 1879 'NEWS OF THE DAY.', The Herald (Melbourne, Vic. : 1861 - 1954), 12 November, p. 2. , viewed 04 Dec 2024, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article244750312 [Explanation: establishes Caroline’s father association with the Spiritualist movement.]

ii 1914 'SELF TO BE MASTERED', The Herald (Melbourne, Vic. : 1861 - 1954), 9 March, p. 3. , viewed 28 Dec 2024, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article242141095 [Explanation: Confirming Caroline’s sister status as a teacher at the Victorian Free Church of Spiritual Philosophy]

iii 1914 'SELF TO BE MASTERED', The Herald (Melbourne, Vic. : 1861 - 1954), 9 March, p. 3. , viewed 28 Dec 2024, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article242141095 [Explanation: Confirming Caroline’s sister status as a teacher at the Victorian Free Church of Spiritual Philosophy]

iv  Deaths Otago Daily Times, Issue 18497, 7 March 1922, Page 4 https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/ODT19220307.2.15 [Explanation: Confirming Caroline’s sister involvement with the Spiritualist Church]

v 1937 'Will Spend Christmas Looking Back Over Century', The Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 - 1957), 24 December, p. 1. , viewed 23 Dec 2024, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article11135449 [Explanation: establishes Caroline’s mother’s as an original member of the Melbourne Society of Spiritual Research, a group focused on spirit communication and metaphysical inquiry]

Inheriting Faith in a Fragmented Religious Landscape (Part 3)

Vows and Voices of the Past

This is the third of a five-part serialised essay that traces the spiritual inheritance of my great-grandfather JohnWilliamson.

While Part 2 revealed the religious diversity that shaped John's early faith, in Part 3,  we shift to a pivotal moment in John’s life: his marriage

Marriage, Methodism, and Making Faith Work

Wedding Photo of John Palmer Williamson & Margaret Edith Jacka 1922

In 1922, John married Margaret Edith Jacka, a woman from a Methodist family in Hamilton, Victoria. The ceremony, held in a Methodist Church and officiated by Rev. James Sweetnam Thomas, reveals John’s adaptability:

• Respecting his wife's tradition

• Practising interdenominational flexibility or perhaps lacking any firm religious conviction of his own

• Embracing religious unity without erasing individual conviction

This choice mirrored the open, pragmatic spirit of his parents and the fluid religious identity shaped by his upbringing.

The Minister as Mirror: What Rev. Thomas Reveals About John's Choices

The minister who joined John and Margaret in matrimony provides a fascinating window into the religious world they were navigating. Rev. James Sweetnam Thomas (c.1869–1927) was not merely an officiant but a significant spiritual figure in New South Wales, described in his obituary as "one of the best known clergymen in N.S.W."

Born into a devout Methodist family with a father honoured for fifty years of lay preaching, Thomas represented the established Methodist tradition that Margaret brought to the marriage. His reputation for patience, kindness, and pastoral dedication suggests why the couple might have chosen him to officiate their union. As a "special preacher" who crossed denominational lines (having preached at Baptist churches), Thomas embodied the kind of interdenominational flexibility that John's own family history had prepared him to value.

What would a wedding ceremony by Rev. Thomas have meant for John, a man raised in the Church of Christ tradition? Given Thomas's reputation as a "faithful pastor" with a "calm and patient spirit," the ceremony likely emphasised the spiritual foundations of marriage rather than rigid denominational boundaries. This aligns perfectly with John's apparent approach to faith—practical, adaptive, yet grounded in inherited Christian values.

Methodist Marriage in Context

The 1922 Methodist wedding ceremony would have been relatively simple compared to Anglican or Catholic traditions of the time, focusing on the spiritual covenant rather than elaborate ritual. This simplicity would have resonated with John's Church of Christ background, which similarly emphasised scriptural purity and unadorned worship.

For John, a returned WWI soldier who had listed "Church of Christ"ⁱ on his military records just years earlier, choosing a Methodist ceremony represented more than mere convenience. It demonstrated a willingness to bridge denominational differences that reflected his own complex religious inheritance—a father who moved from Christian Israelite to Freemasonry, and a mother with ties to Spiritualism.

In this pivotal life decision, we see John enacting the very pattern of religious adaptation that defined his family's approach to faith across generations—honouring tradition while responding pragmatically to new circumstances and relationships.

🗄️ Sources for the Minster:

1. Fifty Years a Local Preacher. (1906, October 26). The Methodist (Sydney, NSW : 1892 - 1954), p. 6. Retrieved May 4, 2025, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article155456692 [Explanation: father Thomas Henry receiving an award for his work in the Methodist Church in Orange, confirms that he is the father of Rev J. Sweetnam Thomas, of Uralla]

2. Correspondence. (1906, June 23). The Uralla News (NSW : 1904 - 1907), p. 2. Retrieved May 4, 2025, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article185478855 [Explanation: He talks about his moral convictions as he refrained from actions based on conscientious reasons, he was also speaking up and supporting people he thought had been maligned by an anonymous person.]

3. REV. J. SWEETNAM THOMAS. (1927, March 9). The Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 - 1954), p. 20. Retrieved May 4, 2025, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article16360013 [Explanation: Obituary outlining his career and his belief in the Temperance.]

4. LATE REV. J. S. THOMAS (1927, March 9). The Labor Daily (Sydney, NSW : 1924 - 1938), p. 6. Retrieved May 4, 2025, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article239930702 [Explanation: Claims he was one of the best known clergymen in N.S.W. article also refers to his daughter who became demonstrator in zoology at the Sydney University, demonstrating his believe in supporting women as full participants in society not just the home.]

Footnotes

i John Palmer Williamson (service number 10030), WWI Service record, page 7 of 29 National Archives of Australia, Series number B2455, Item ID 8389870 (accessed at https://recordsearch.naa.gov.au/SearchNRetrieve/Interface/ViewImage.aspx?B=8389870 : 11 May 2025)

Inheriting Faith in a Fragmented Religious Landscape (Part 2)

Mapping a Fragmented Faith

This is the second of a five-part serialised essay that traces the spiritual inheritance of my great-grandfather John Williamson.

Having established in Part 1 how John Williamson's spiritual journey reflects our modern struggles with religious identity—navigating diverse family traditions while forging personal meaning in changing social contexts—we now turn to mapping the specific religious landscape that shaped his faith inheritance.

The following timeline provides a chronological overview of key religious events and affiliations across three generations. Before exploring the details of John Williamson's religious heritage, the following timeline provides a chronological overview of key religious events and affiliations across three generations. This visual representation helps illustrate how faith evolved through Moses and Caroline's diverse spiritual backgrounds, ultimately shaping the religious context in which John was raised.

Inheriting Faith in a Fragmented Religious Landscape (Part 1)

Part 1: A Religious Inheritance

This serialised essay traces the spiritual inheritance of my great-grandfather John Williamson, revealing how faith was shaped by family traditions, migration, and changing religious landscapes in colonial and early 20th-century Australia. It explores:

• The contrasting religious backgrounds of John’s parents: Moses, a structured Christian seeker, and Caroline, raised in a Spiritualist household.

• How John’s early life in York, Western Australia, influenced his adoption of the Church of Christ.

• The significance of John’s interdenominational marriage and his adult faith choices.

• Broader reflections on how faith is inherited, adapted, and negotiated across generations.

This is the first in a five-part series exploring the spiritual inheritance of my great-grandfather, John Williamson, and the fragmented religious world he navigated.

Photo by MARIOLA GROBELSKA on Unsplash

A Legacy of Faith: Framing the Family Story

When exploring my great-grandfather John Williamson's spiritual journey through colonial Australia, I discovered a remarkable parallel to our contemporary struggles with religious identity. Though separated by more than a century, the challenges he faced resonate powerfully today: navigating diverse family traditions, transplanting faith to new environments, and forging personal meaning when inherited beliefs meet changing social contexts.

In today's world of declining religious affiliation and more personalised belief systems, many of us experience unprecedented freedom—and uncertainty—in our spiritual lives. John's story offers a compelling historical lens through which to examine this modern condition. His experience at the intersection of structured religion and metaphysical exploration demonstrates how faith identity is not simply inherited but actively negotiated through family influence, geographical circumstance, and personal conviction.

This series traces the religious journey of four generations of my family, focusing on John Williamson as a case study in spiritual adaptation. Using a hermeneutic approach inspired by the article "Devout: Were Our Ancestors 'Godly'?" (Mightier Acorns, May 3, 2025), I aim to understand not just what my ancestors practised, but what they believed—and how those beliefs shaped their relationships, migrations, and communities. By examining both religious records and the social contexts in which they lived, I hope to illuminate the complex ways faith transforms when transplanted to new soil, constrained by practical realities, and enriched by diverse influences.

Next: Part 2: Mapping a Fragmented Faith

Z is for Zeehan

This post is part of the A to Z Challenge, a blogging initiative where participants publish daily posts in April (except Sundays), each one themed around a letter of the alphabet.

My theme this year is "Migration Stories" — tracing the journeys, ships, and personal histories behind my ancestors’ moves across continents. Through passenger records, newspaper clippings, and genealogical detective work, I’m piecing together the routes they took and the vessels that carried them. Today's post is brought to you by the letter Z.

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By 1903, the Bone family were already living in Zeehan, Tasmania, where their second child, Henry, was born. Their first child, Lily, had been born earlier in Victoria. But it wasn’t until 1908 that the Bassett family joined them on the island.

Lilian had married Thomas Manderson in Bendigo, and the couple had left Victoria soon after to live near Thomas’ family in Western Australia. However, when Lilian returned to Victoria pregnant, but was without her husband. She gave birth to her first child with the support of her mother and extended family. During her confinement, she stayed with her mother-in-law, hoping Thomas would reappear. But as time passed, it became clear that he was gone, and she would need to fend for herself and her child.

Lilian found work as a housekeeper for William Bassett, a local miner in Eaglehawk. Over time, their relationship deepened. When it was clear she would not be reunited with her husband, Lilian and William became a couple — the only parents her daughter would ever know.

Before long, Lilian was pregnant again, this time with William's child. Living in a small mining town where everyone knew everyone was difficult. But Lilian was a proud and independent woman. When William offered to help pay for a divorce from Thomas, she refused. She would not spend his money on what she saw as her own problem — it was hers to solve.

With the support of Lilian’s sister, the couple hatched a plan: they would move to Tasmania, where no one knew them or their complicated marital history. In Zeehan, they were introduced as Mr. and Mrs. Bassett from Victoria. No one questioned their status, and no one asked.

William found work in the local mines alongside Sydney Herbert Bone, his brother-in-law through Lilian’s sister. On 17 September 1908, their son, William Bassett, was born in Dundas, Tasmania.

Four years later, the family moved back to Victoria. By then, everyone assumed they were married. When their last child, Gladys, was born, Lilian was finally able to register William as the father, something she had never been able to do before.

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Research Notes

We haven’t been able to find shipping records for the move to Tasmania, but the birth dates of their children help narrow down the timeframe. Their daughter Myrtle was born on 2 June 1907 in Eaglehawk, Victoria, and their son William was born on 17 September 1908 in Dundas, Tasmania.
So, the family must have travelled to Tasmania sometime between those two dates.

Even without passenger lists, the children’s births tell the story of this hidden migration — one not just of place, but of reinvention.

Blog Post Meta Data

The URL for this post is https://ancestralresearchjournal.blogspot.com/2025/04/z-is-for-zeehan.html,  originally published on 30 April 2025

Author 2025, Sandra Williamson

Sources:

Although no shipping record has been located for the family’s travel to and from Tasmania, the timeline is clearly supported by the birth registrations of their children in Victoria and Tasmania between 1906 and 1912.

The Family of Sydney Herbert Bone & Ada Selina Bone

Ada Bone's marriage to Sydney Herbt Bone was registered in 1898 in Victoria, Australia

1. Birth of Lily Irena Bone, 1900, Bendigo, Victoria, Australia, child of Sydney Herbt BONE & ADA Silina CRUMP. Victoria State Government, Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages Victoria, Australia (index database without images); Registration number 18492 / 1900

2. Birth record for Henry Theophilus Bone, born 4 March 1903, Mt Reid, Tasmania. Registered in the District of Zeehan 1903 entry 97 Libraries Tasmania Online collection https://libraries.tas.gov.au/Digital/RGD33-4-9/RGD33-4-9-281

3. Birth record for Henry Theophilus Bone, born 20 February 1906, Zeehan, Tasmania. Registered in the District of Zeehan 1906 page 336 entry 197 Registration number 3340, Libraries Tasmania Online collection https://libraries.tas.gov.au/Record/NamesIndex/2184020

4. Birth record for Henry Theophilus Bone, born 4 March 1903, Mt Reid, Tasmania. Registered in the District of Zeehan 1910, page 267, entry 72 (registration number 3637) Libraries Tasmania Online collection https://libraries.tas.gov.au/Digital/RGD33-4-34/FF5C9B5A-BF8A-4022-9B69-564712E19CB3

The Family of William Bassett & Lillian May Bassett

Lillian married Thomas Manderson on May 7, 1903 in Bendigo, Victoria.

Missing Persons notices for Thomas Manderson:

• Western Australian Gazette, 1906 / 20, 16-Mar-1906, page 845 https://www.slp.wa.gov.au/gazette/gazette.nsf/searchgazette/F5F32A6A4046D57348257C6100257B4A/$file/gg020.pdf [Explanation: Missing Persons notice seeking Thomas Manderson]

• ‘MISSING FRIENDS’, The Daily News, 30 June 1906, p. 6 (SECOND EDITION). Accessed 25 November 2016 at http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82404925 [note the same article is repeated twice in the same edition of the Daily News it appears on both pages 5 & 6] [Explanation: Thomas Manderson, found at Goomalling, near Newcastle]

• Anon, ‘MISSING FRIENDS’, 30 June 1906, The Daily News, p. 5 (SECOND EDITION). Accessed 25 November 2016 at http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82405063

Children of Lillian May Crump

1. Birth of Doris Lillian CRUMP/MANDERSON born 1906, Victoria State Government, Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages Victoria, Australia Registration number Year 1906, #2688 note No father was listed on the certificate, only her mother under her married name Lilian Manderson nee Crump. [possibly the child of Thomas Manderson, however, brought up as the child of William Bassett]

2. Birth Certificate of, Myrtle May CRUMP/MANDERSON born 1907, Victoria State Government, Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages Victoria, Registration number Year 1907, #1022 [Research note: No father was listed on the certificate, only her mother under her married name Lilian Manderson nee Crump.]

3. Birth record for William Manderson, born 17 September 1908, Zeehan, Tasmania. Registered in the District of Zeehan 1908, page 339, entry 1290 (registration number 3758) Libraries Tasmania Online collection https://libraries.tas.gov.au/Digital/RGD33-4-25/A6F452D9-80AE-44D9-85C9-2F36D9492984 [Research note: No father was listed on the certificate, only her mother under her married name Lilian Manderson nee Crump.]

4. Birth record for Gladys Irene Bassett born 1912, Eaglehawk, Victoria, daughter of William Bassett & Lilian Crump, Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages Victoria, Australia Registration number Year 1912, #19781

Y is for Yo-Yo Travel

This post is part of the A to Z Challenge, a blogging initiative where participants publish daily posts in April (except Sundays), each one themed around a letter of the alphabet.

My theme this year is "Migration Stories" — tracing the journeys, ships, and personal histories behind my ancestors’ moves across continents. Through passenger records, newspaper clippings, and genealogical detective work, I’m piecing together the routes they took and the vessels that carried them. Today's post is brought to you by the letter Y.

Migration in the 1800s is often seen as a one-way journey, but for my Bassett ancestors, it was more complex: a 'yo-yo' pattern of leaving, returning, and setting out again, often with new knowledge or family

Setting the Stage:

“From early 1852, news reached London of much richer Victorian gold finds at Buninyong, then Ballarat, Mount Alexander and Bendigo. These discoveries triggered a rash of nearly 40 British-based Australian gold mining companies in 1852, twelve in January alone, including the Port Phillip and Colonial Gold Mining Company”ⁱ

Miners recruited by these companies signed five-year contracts prohibiting them from other work or speculation.ⁱⁱ Although Victoria had become independent from New South Wales in 1851, its government favoured small miners over large companies, making it hard for corporations to thrive.ⁱⁱⁱ Many miners, including John Bassett [II], found themselves released once their contracts expired.

When John arrived in the 1850s the state of Victoria regulatory environment favoured small mining enterprises and it was difficult for large mining companies to establish themselves. Some blamed the government’s 'pro-digger/anti-company' stance; others cited poor management for company failures.^iv In this environment, many miners lost their jobs when contracts ended.^v

John Bassett’s Yo-Yo Journey:

John Bassett [II] likely signed his contract in 1852 and sailed aboard the Marco Polo, arriving at Port Phillip Bay in May 1853. His initial work was at Sailors' Gully near Bendigo.

When John's contract neared its end, he returned to England in October 1856 aboard the Montmorency. About eight months later, he sailed back to Australia on the Royal Charter, this time accompanied by his wife Catherine and children Francis, John, Catherine, and Martha. His brother William Bassett and brother-in-law Stephen Davey were also aboard. 

Building a New Venture

Freed from company obligations, John and his brothers took independent steps. In 1859, they formally applied for a mining lease on land they had already been working for two years, a clear sign of their entrepreneurial ambitions.^vi

They eventually staked claim to the very reef originally assigned to the company they had once served. The "Bassett Brothers" included John [II], Francis, William, James Bassett, and Stephen Davey.^vii

They worked their leased claim until about 1870.^viii

Possible Travel Itinerary

• 26 May 1853: John Bassett[I] (53) & John Bassett[II] (32) arrive Port Phillip Bay on the Marco Polo.^ix

• 1854: John Bassett [I] and John Bassett [II] may have returned temporarily to England.

• 1854: John Bassett[II] (33) returns to Port Phillip Bay, Australia on the Marco Polo ^x

• 14 October 1856: John Bassett[II] (36) returns to England on the Montmorency.^xi

• 16 May 1857: John[II] with wife and children depart England on the Royal Charter.^xii Arrived 19 July 1857 in Hobson’s Bay, Victoria.^{xiii xiv}

• 1861 John Bassett[I] returns to Port Phillip with his wife and future daughter-in-law Miss Symons on the SS Great Britain.^xv

Reflection

Migration wasn't always a permanent farewell — and it wasn’t always solitary. Despite the expense and risk of 1800s travel, return was possible.

For the Bassett family, these 'yo-yo' voyages were strategic, helping them establish roots in a new land.

Research Notes:

John Bassett [II], son of John Bassett [I], was born 1820/1. According to the 1853 Shipping Manifest, John Bassett [I] was born in 1800, but other records suggest 1790. Is it possible the manifest lists an incorrect age for John Bassett [I]? If so, he may have returned to England before the 1861 English Census.

Blog Post Meta Data

The URL for this post is https://ancestralresearchjournal.blogspot.com/2025/04/y-is-for-yo-yo-travel.html,  originally published on 29 April 2025

Author 2025, Sandra Williamson

Thank you for reading. 

Sources:

i R. H. Bland and the Port Phillip and Colonial Gold Mining Company, page 8 (https://doi.org/10.26181/21841971.v1 : accessed 6 September 2023)

ii R. H. Bland and the Port Phillip and Colonial Gold Mining Company, page 12 (https://doi.org/10.26181/21841971.v1 : accessed 6 September 2023)

iii R. H. Bland and the Port Phillip and Colonial Gold Mining Company, page 19 (https://doi.org/10.26181/21841971.v1 : accessed 6 September 2023)

iv R. H. Bland and the Port Phillip and Colonial Gold Mining Company, page 19 (https://doi.org/10.26181/21841971.v1 : accessed 6 September 2023)

v Kelly, W, 1860, Life in Victoria, or, Victoria in 1853 and Victoria in 1858 : showing the march of improvement made by the colony within those periods, in town and country, cities and diggings, London : Chapman and Hall ; Melbourne : George Robertson

vi Victoria Government Gazette 1859, Applications for Mining Leases in the District of Sandhurst, p2467. (2017). – Online Archive – Gazette.slv.vic.gov.au. http://gazette.slv.vic.gov.au/view.cgi?class=general&state=V&year=1859&page_num=2467 Retrieved 6 August 2023

vii Journal of Australasian Mining History, Volume 9, September 2011 Anatomy of a Failed Miner – The Colonial Gold Company 1852-1857 [pages 129-142) by Ralph Birrell page 136 [BirrellFinal (mininghistory.asn.au) : accessed 6 September 2023]

viii Leases 102 & 103 in 1859 in the Registrar of Applications for Gold Mining Leases Unit 195 Sandhurst Bendigo, 1-200 VPRS 7842/0002

ix Passenger Listing for John Bassett(53) and John Bassett(32) on the Ship “Marco Polo” 1853 bound for Port Phillip Australia. Public Record Office Victoria, North Melbourne, Victoria VPRS 947/P0000, Apr - May 1853 https://prov.vic.gov.au/archive/3402227A-F96C-11E9-AE98-FF6251ADC8F4?image=272 accessed 28 April 2025 Image 272 [of 387] (Manifest Images 266 to 275)

x Passenger Listing for John Bassett(33) on the Ship “Marco Polo” 1854 bound for Port Phillip Australia. Public Record Office Victoria, North Melbourne, Victoria VPRS 947/P0000, Jan - Mar 1854 https://prov.vic.gov.au/archive/3AF2902C-F96C-11E9-AE98-6F3E4C825073?image=208 accessed 28 April 2025 Image 208 [of 500] (Manifest Images 206 to 213 )

xi Passenger Listing for John Bassett(36) on the Ship “Montmorency” 1856 bound for Liverpool. Public Record Office Victoria, North Melbourne, Victoria VPRS 948/P0001, Sep - Oct 1856 https://prov.vic.gov.au/archive/236E662A-F7F0-11E9-AE98-71788719474E?image=238 accessed 28 April 2025 Image 238 [of 271] (Manifest Images 237 to 245)

xii Passenger Listing entry 256 for John Bassett(36), his wife catherine(33) and children Francis(11), John (10), Catherine(8) & Martha(6) in Second Cabins on the Ship “Royal Charter” May 1857 bound for Melbourne. Public Record Office Victoria, North Melbourne, Victoria VPRS 947/P0000, Jul - Sep 1857 https://prov.vic.gov.au/archive/3B05F129-F96C-11E9-AE98-27F6998F8082?image=113 accessed 28 April 2025 Image 113 [of 342] (Manifest Images 107 to 115)

xiii SHIPPING INTELLIGENCE Arrived (Hobson’s Bay). (1857, July 20). The Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 - 1957), p. 4. Retrieved April 28, 2025, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article7135589 [Explanation: Annoucing the Royal Charter arrive as 19 July 1857 Lists Saloon and Second Saloon passengers by name which includes Mrs & Mrs Bassett]

xiv SHIPPING INTELLIGENCE. The Voyage of the Marco Polo (1853, May 10). The Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 - 1957), p. 4. Retrieved April 28, 2025, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article4792448 [Explanation: provides great detail of the voyage.]

xv Passenger Listing 2754 John & Martha Bassett and Miss Samions on the Ship "Great Britain" 19 October 1861. Unassisted Passenger Lists, 1839-1923 Public Record Office Victoria, North Melbourne, Victoria. VPRS 947/P0000, Sep - Dec 1861 (https://prov.vic.gov.au/archive/3B1D49CA-F96C-11E9-AE98-BB631F4E00E4?image=244 accessed 26 April 2025)

X is for Xmas at sea and the gift of a new start

How James Willoughby's voyage aboard the S.S. Nurjahan changed his life forever

This April, as part of the Blogging from A to Z Challenge, I’m sharing their stories, one letter at a time. Today, we focus on the letter X, which stands for Xmas.

Migration has always been a defining feature of my family’s history, with ancestors crossing oceans and continents in search of new beginnings. Some left with a plan, others disappeared into the unknown, their stories unfolding in unexpected ways. One such journey began in 1884 when my great-grandfather, James Lincoln TempleWilloughby, vanished from his family’s life, setting sail for Australia.

Departure: A One-Way Journey

At 19, James left behind his home in Millwall, a neighborhood deeply connected to London’s docklands, and boarded the S.S. Nurjahan as a steward.^{i ii iii iv} The Nurjahan was no ordinary ship, it was a gleaming steel steamship built by the renowned Harland and Wolff of Belfast. At 2,967 tons and powered by 2,000-horsepower engines, it was a marvel of modern engineering, designed specifically for passenger comfort. Its spacious decks, elegant saloons, and state-of-the-art amenities, including baths and washhouses, made it one of the finest emigrant steamers of its time.^vvi For James, it was also an escape, a chance to leave behind the soot and clang of the forge where he had worked as a blacksmith’s apprentice.

By the 1880s, England was a land of contrasts. While the Industrial Revolution had brought wealth to some, it had left many others struggling in overcrowded cities and declining rural towns. For James, working as a blacksmith’s apprentice in Millwall, the soot-filled air and relentless clang of the forge were daily reminders of a life with little promise of change. Emigration offered a chance to escape the grinding poverty and limited opportunities of Victorian England, and for James, the S.S. Nurjahan represented not just a ship, but a gateway to a new future.

The ship departed London on November 26, 1884,^vii stopping at Plymouth,^viii and Teneriffe,^ix The Nurjahan paused in Cape Town over Christmas for a few days, and the voyage took on a new dimension. Spending Christmas in a colonial part must have felt both exhilarating and disorienting. Far from the frosty scenes of home, he likely swapped a cold English Yuletide for summer warmth beneath the Southern Cross. Each stop exposed James to new people, domestic servants, farm laborers, skilled tradesmen, each with their own hopes and dreams.^x Their stories left an impression on him, planting the idea that he too might forge a new path.

Disruptions and Discipline at Sea

After nearly two months at sea, the Nurjahan reached Hobart in January 1885. The arrival was marked by unruly celebrations, with several crew members arrested after altercations with local authorities. James, however, remained focused on his duties, watching as the immigrants disembarked to start their new lives.

Life aboard the Nurjahan was not always smooth sailing. While the ship was renowned for its modern design and passenger comforts, below deck, tensions brewed. Crew members worked long hours in tough conditions, and discipline was strictly enforced.

In Hobart, several members of the Nurjahan’s crew found themselves in trouble with the law. John McClements, a sailor, refused an order from the second engineer, citing a lack of clean clothes.^xi He was promptly arrested and forced to return to duty. Another sailor, Jeremiah Walsh, was fined for disorderly conduct on board, while William O’Brien and Thomas Cluskey were charged with assaulting police officers during shore leave.^xii

Not all disturbances came from the crew. The ship also had a stowaway, Daniel Donovan, who refused to disembark upon arrival in Hobart. When forced ashore, he caused such a commotion that he was arrested for using obscene language.^xiii

For James, witnessing these incidents may have reinforced his desire for a different future. The rigid hierarchy of ship life, the harsh punishments for minor infractions, and the volatile behavior of fellow sailors all stood in contrast to the stability he saw in life on land.

A Journey Backward: The Other Side of Migration

Not all those who boarded the Nurjahan saw it as a passage to a new future. For one young woman, the ship was a last resort—a way home after migration had failed her.

Having married against her parents’ wishes, she followed her husband from Tasmania to New Zealand and then to England, only to be abandoned with her three-month-old baby in Gravesend. Left penniless after he pawned her jewellery and disappeared, she survived on the kindness of strangers. When her plight reached a local businessman, he arranged for her passage back to Hobart aboard the Nurjahan.^xiv

Her story stood in stark contrast to those of the hopeful emigrants James had met at the start of his journey. It was a reminder that migration was not just a path to opportunity, it could also lead to heartbreak and loss. For James, who was already weighing his future, this story may have reinforced the idea that stepping ashore in Sydney would not be a guarantee of success, but a leap into the unknown.

Disappearance into a New Life

On January 24, the ship reached Melbourne, and by January 31, it was en route to Sydney, passing Green Cape in the afternoon. Under the command of Captain William Mason, the Nurjahan arrived in Sydney on February 1, 1885, completing its long journey from London via Hobart and Melbourne. In Sydney, James found himself at a crossroads. The Nurjahan was undergoing a transformation, its passenger accommodations were being removed, turning it into a cargo vessel.^xv What had once been described as spacious accommodation for immigrants was now being converted into cargo space, even advertised as suitable for transporting horses due to the impressive 8 feet 6 inches height of the 'tween-decks. His role as a steward was no longer needed.

Australia in the 1880s was a land of contrasts. While the gold rushes of previous decades had slowed, the promise of wealth still lingered in the air. Cities like Sydney and Melbourne were bustling hubs of trade and industry, their streets lined with the hopeful and the ambitious. For James, stepping ashore in Sydney meant more than just a new job—it was a chance to reinvent himself in a society where hard work could lead to respect and prosperity. Yet, the challenges were real: the scorching heat, the vast distances, and the isolation from all he had known. But for a young man with little to lose, Australia was a land of endless possibility.

James now faced a choice: return to England, find work on another ship, or stay in Australia. Inspired by those he had met on the journey, including the ship’s doctor, who had decided to settle in Victoria,^xvi James chose to remain.

For his family back home, he had simply vanished. His mother, MaryAnn, held onto hope, placing a newspaper notice in 1901 searching for him.^xvii

“Willoughby, or Todman (James), left Millwall in 1884; last letter from Sydney, N.S.W., in 1888. Mother asks”

In an age before telephones and instant communication, losing touch with family was an all-too-common fate for emigrants. Letters took months to cross the oceans, and many were lost or never sent. For James, the decision to stay in Australia meant more than just a new life, it meant leaving behind his family in Millwall, perhaps forever. His mother’s notice in the newspaper, searching for her vanished son, was a poignant reminder of the countless families torn apart by the tides of migration. Yet, for James, this disappearance was not an end, but a beginning—a chance to rewrite his story in a land where the past could be left behind.

A New Beginning

We don’t know if James(or Walter, as he may have been known) ever contacted his family back home, but we do know that he became a valuable member of society. After a brief stint in New South Wales, he establish himself as a respectable business man and mechanic in Victoria. His disappearance was not a tragic loss but a transformation. He was part of a broader pattern, one where migration was as much about reinvention as it was about movement. For some, migration meant carrying their past with them; for James, it meant leaving it behind entirely.

In the end, his journey was not just about the distance travelled but about the person he became along the way.

📘 Glossary of Colonial Terms and Phrases

To help readers unfamiliar with colonial and maritime terms, here’s a brief glossary explaining some of the words used in today’s post:

• Steward — A member of the ship’s crew responsible for serving meals and maintaining passenger accommodations.

• Tween-decks — The space between the decks of a ship, often used for cargo or steerage passengers.

• Emigrant Steamer — A steamship specially designed or adapted to carry emigrants to new colonies.

• Stowaway — A person who hides on a ship to travel without paying for passage.

• Disembark — To leave a ship and go ashore.

• Unassisted Immigrant — Someone who migrated without receiving financial support from government or private immigration schemes.

Blog Post Meta Data

The URL for this post is https://ancestralresearchjournal.blogspot.com/2025/04/x-is-for-xmas-at-sea-and-gift-of-new.html,  originally published on 28 April 2025

Author 2025, Sandra Williamson

Thank you for reading. Sources and further references are listed below.

i  1885 'Shipping.', Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 - 1919), 7 February, p. 39. , viewed 02 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article71023367

ii  Passenger List: "New South Wales, Australia, Unassisted Immigrant Passenger Lists, 1826-1922" Ancestrycom (accessed 13 April 2022) Entry for Crew member James Willoughby aged19 born Bermondsey working as a Steward; on the vessel Nurjahan Departed London; Arrived 2 Feb 1885 in Sydney, New South Wales; 23 unnumbed entry on page 2 of the Arrival List of Crew & Passengers for the voyage

iii  1885 'Shipping.', Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 - 1919), 7 February, p. 39. , viewed 07 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article71023367

iv  1885 'SHIPPING.', The Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 - 1954), 5 February, p. 4. , viewed 07 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article13581796

v  1885 '[BY ELECTRIC TELEGRAM.] MOUNT NELSON.', The Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860 - 1954), 8 January, p. 2. , viewed 28 Feb 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article9098647

vi  1885 'Along the Wharves.', Evening News (Sydney, NSW : 1869 - 1931), 29 January, p. 4. , viewed 02 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article111173630

vii  1885 'Shipping.', Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 - 1919), 7 February, p. 39. , viewed 02 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article71023367

viii  1885 'Shipping.', Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 - 1919), 7 February, p. 39. , viewed 02 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article71023367

ix  1885 'ARRIVAL OF THE S.S. NURJAHAN.', The Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860 - 1954), 20 January, p. 2. , viewed 01 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article9099231

x 1884 'OUR CABLE NEWS.', Launceston Examiner (Tas. : 1842 - 1899), 29 December, p. 2. , viewed 28 Feb 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article90552963

xi 1885 'THE TARIFF CONFERENCE.', The Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860 - 1954), 22 January, p. 2. , viewed 01 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article9099328

xii 1885 'LOCAL AND GENERAL.', Tasmanian News (Hobart, Tas. : 1883 - 1911), 21 January, p. 2. , viewed 01 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article163519143

xiii 1885 'LOCAL AND GENERAL.', Tasmanian News (Hobart, Tas. : 1883 - 1911), 20 January, p. 2. , viewed 01 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article163519109

xiv 1885 'A DISTRESSING CASE.', Launceston Examiner (Tas. : 1842 - 1899), 8 January, p. 2. , viewed 01 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article38294355

xv 1885 'Auction Sales', The Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 - 1954), 14 February, p. 21. , viewed 02 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article13584686

xvi 1885 'THE MERCURY.', The Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860 - 1954), 21 January, p. 2. , viewed 02 Mar 2025, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article9099275

xvii  MISSING FRIENDS. (1901, April 13). Evening Journal (Adelaide, SA : 1869 - 1912), p. 6. Retrieved October 21, 2015, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207944213